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related_results_labels({"version":"1.0","encoding":"UTF-8","feed":{"xmlns":"http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom","xmlns$openSearch":"http://a9.com/-/spec/opensearchrss/1.0/","xmlns$blogger":"http://schemas.google.com/blogger/2008","xmlns$georss":"http://www.georss.org/georss","xmlns$gd":"http://schemas.google.com/g/2005","xmlns$thr":"http://purl.org/syndication/thread/1.0","id":{"$t":"tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2162545800636176770"},"updated":{"$t":"2024-12-18T19:28:42.131-08:00"},"category":[{"term":"history of hinduism"},{"term":"hindu gods"},{"term":"hinduism"},{"term":"hindu life"},{"term":"origin of hinduism"},{"term":"castes"},{"term":"hindu rituals"},{"term":"aryan civilization"},{"term":"basics of hinduism"},{"term":"caste system"},{"term":"hindu salvation"},{"term":"hinduism beliefs"},{"term":"hinduism today"},{"term":"facts about hinduism"},{"term":"goddess"},{"term":"hindu goddesses"},{"term":"hindu society"},{"term":"hindu scriptures"},{"term":"history of india"},{"term":"how hinduism was started"},{"term":"indus valley civilization"},{"term":"introduction to hinduism"},{"term":"karma"},{"term":"krishna"},{"term":"meaning of hinduism"},{"term":"vedas"},{"term":"vishnu"},{"term":"Bhagavad Gita"},{"term":"british imperialism"},{"term":"devi"},{"term":"devotion"},{"term":"dharma"},{"term":"gandhi"},{"term":"hind"},{"term":"hindu creation story"},{"term":"hindu teachings"},{"term":"hinduism and other religions"},{"term":"hinduism in the west"},{"term":"hinduism symbols"},{"term":"india"},{"term":"islam"},{"term":"meaning of life"},{"term":"modern hinduism"},{"term":"modern world"},{"term":"reincarnation"},{"term":"role of women"},{"term":"samsara"},{"term":"shaivism"},{"term":"shakti"},{"term":"shaktism"},{"term":"shiva"},{"term":"tantra"},{"term":"women in hinduism"},{"term":"worship"}],"title":{"type":"text","$t":"Hinduism Beliefs"},"subtitle":{"type":"html","$t":"Welcome seeker! Here you can learn many things about Hinduism, the oldest and one of the more complex of the existing religions. Feel free to read some of the things I've learnt through my journey."},"link":[{"rel":"http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#feed","type":"application/atom+xml","href":"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/feeds\/posts\/default"},{"rel":"self","type":"application/atom+xml","href":"http:\/\/www.blogger.com\/feeds\/2162545800636176770\/posts\/default\/-\/hindu+society?alt=json-in-script\u0026max-results=5"},{"rel":"alternate","type":"text/html","href":"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/search\/label\/hindu%20society"},{"rel":"hub","href":"http://pubsubhubbub.appspot.com/"}],"author":[{"name":{"$t":"Pablo"},"uri":{"$t":"http:\/\/www.blogger.com\/profile\/11389808587848128327"},"email":{"$t":"noreply@blogger.com"},"gd$image":{"rel":"http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail","width":"16","height":"16","src":"https:\/\/img1.blogblog.com\/img\/b16-rounded.gif"}}],"generator":{"version":"7.00","uri":"http://www.blogger.com","$t":"Blogger"},"openSearch$totalResults":{"$t":"3"},"openSearch$startIndex":{"$t":"1"},"openSearch$itemsPerPage":{"$t":"5"},"entry":[{"id":{"$t":"tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2162545800636176770.post-4726462598626240486"},"published":{"$t":"2009-02-13T04:43:00.000-08:00"},"updated":{"$t":"2009-09-25T08:29:28.378-07:00"},"category":[{"scheme":"http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#","term":"british imperialism"},{"scheme":"http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#","term":"hindu society"},{"scheme":"http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#","term":"history of hinduism"},{"scheme":"http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#","term":"history of india"}],"title":{"type":"text","$t":"British Imperialism in India"},"content":{"type":"html","$t":"In many ways, British imperialism in India was far more significant than the presence of \u003Ca href=\"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2009\/02\/hinduism-and-challenge-of-islam.html\"\u003EMuslims\u003C\/a\u003E, although the British directly ruled India for only 90 years. The British brought with them western folk ways and culture. Many Indians sought to imitate them by speaking English, playing cricket and having afternoon tea. Yet the effects the British brought were deeper and more complicated than just this.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EBritish presence introduced into India western values and social dynamics. Britain’s initial and foremost interest in India was commercial. The East India Company was Britain’s first established involvement on the subcontinent. The British developed the cities of Calcutta, Mombay (which they called Bombay), and Chennai or Madras into large and industrialized trading centers. Industrialization and urbanization had uprooting effects on the traditions of Indian society. All restrictions imposed by \u003Ca href=\"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2008\/11\/caste-system.html\"\u003Ecaste\u003C\/a\u003E and \u003Ca href=\"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2008\/12\/role-of-women-in-hinduism.html\"\u003Efamily\u003C\/a\u003E could be more easily disregarded in urban areas.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003ETraditional practices and beliefs were placed in doubt and reevaluated. Industrial economies also raised expectations of material success. India had for thousand of years explicitly favored the \u003Ca href=\"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2009\/01\/essence-of-self-and-reality.html\"\u003Etranscendence\u003C\/a\u003E over the material world. Wealth and pleasure were goods, but \u003Ca href=\"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2009\/01\/hinduism-and-path-to-salvation.html\"\u003Emoksha\u003C\/a\u003E, the bliss of ultimate release was the sumum bonum, the supreme good. Now, in view of the western focus on the material world, many Hindus begin to reassess this world’s significance.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EMany Hindus began to consider that perhaps the way to happiness is not to transcend the world but to transform it. The British encouraged literacy. Learning to speak and read English was and still is regarded as an avenue to success. This, of course, is not a uniform trend. Still today, 30% of the Indian population is illiterate. The encouragement of literacy and English was sufficient, however, to generate interest among many in reading the western classics, including the Bible.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EWhen one reads the literature of the western tradition it is easy to learn the values of the western world, such as the principle of the equality of all persons, which stands at odds with the assumptions of the \u003Ca href=\"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2008\/11\/caste-system.html\"\u003Ecaste system.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EThe Responses to the New Ideas: The Brahmo Samaj\u003C\/h4\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EThe founding of two important Hindu movements in the 19th century can serve to illustrate different Hindu responses to westernization. The first is the Brahmo Samaj or the “society of believers in Brahmins”. The Brahmo Samaj was founded in 1828 by Rammohun Roy, an important modern Hindu reformer.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003ERammohun Roy, who was born just about the time the American colonies were beginning their revolution from the British, was educated by Muslims and early on developed an intense dislike for the British occupation. As a young man, however, Roy began to work for the East Indian Company. He learned English and came to appreciate western ways. Eventually, Roy came to support British rule and to value western education. The movement he initiated, the Brahmo Samaj, reflected Roy’s critical appreciation of the West.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EThe Brahmo Samaj might be described as traditional Hinduism transformed by encountering Christianity. Roy studied the Bible and admired Jesus, but he could not accept the idea of Jesus’ divinity. He was troubled by the \u003Ca href=\"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2009\/01\/how-many-gods-do-hindus-believe-in.html\"\u003Epolytheism of popular Hinduism\u003C\/a\u003E and denounced it. He also criticized the practice of \u003Ca href=\"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2009\/01\/power-of-symbols-and-images-in-hinduism.html\"\u003EPuja\u003C\/a\u003E, the veneration of images. He called it “idol worship”. Roy preferred the \u003Ca href=\"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2009\/01\/essence-of-self-and-reality.html\"\u003EUpanishads\u003C\/a\u003E to all other Hindu scriptures and he contended that they taught a simple form of monotheism.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EHe adopted what I would call a liberal approach to scripture, because he argued that the \u003Ca href=\"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2008\/11\/hinduisms-holy-book.html\"\u003EVedas\u003C\/a\u003E should be authoritative only when it is shown to be reasonable. In this respect, Roy’s view parallels that of 19th century liberal Christians, who said similar things about the Bible. He even established weekly congregational worship services like the Christians.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003ERoy may be best remembered, though, for his efforts to improve the treatment of \u003Ca href=\"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2008\/12\/role-of-women-in-hinduism.html\"\u003Ewomen\u003C\/a\u003E in India, specially the widows. He was instrumental in the abolition of Sati, “widow burning”, in 1829.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EThe Arya Samaj\u003C\/h4\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EWhile the Brahmo Samaj had a liberal approach to Hinduism, the Arya Samaj, another religious movement that began in the 19th century, had a more fundamentalist outlook. I am aware that I’m using western labels, but perhaps this adjectives may help us grasp the situation. The terms liberal and fundamentalist categorize two responses to modernity itself.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EThe Arya Samaj was fundamentalist in its approach to the Hindu collection of scripture. It not only regarded the \u003Ca href=\"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2008\/11\/hinduisms-holy-book.html\"\u003EVedas\u003C\/a\u003E as the only authoritative sacred text, thus denying the sacredness of popular books like the \u003Ca href=\"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2009\/01\/summary-of-bhagavad-gita.html\"\u003EBagahvad Gita\u003C\/a\u003E and the Puranas, it also maintained that the Vedas were source of all truth: scientific and spiritual. Such view is not unlike that of Christian fundamentalists who consider the Bible historically and scientifically accurate. Just as Christian fundamentalists consider the Bible open and available to anyone for interpretation, the Aryasamage said that the Vedas are available to all for study.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EThe Arya Samaj was founded by Swami Dayanand, in the late 19th century, about the time fundamentalism got started in the United States. Like the more liberal Rammohun Roy, Swami Dayanand disliked much of what he saw in popular Hindu practice of his day, specially Puja and pilgrimage. He viewed much of popular Hinduism as mere superstition. Dayanand even went to deny divinity of popular avataras, such as \u003Ca href=\"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2009\/01\/hindu-god-vishnu.html\"\u003ERama and Krishna\u003C\/a\u003E, and to reject the idea of \u003Ca href=\"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2008\/11\/caste-system.html\"\u003Ejatis\u003C\/a\u003E, the hereditary birth classes, simply because these words do not appear in the Vedas.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003ELike Rammohun Roy, Dayanand was an advocate of fairer treatment of women. He contended that women should be educated and widows should be allowed to remarry. He also held that Hinduism was superior to other religions and that all other religions attempt to approximate to it. Anyone familiar with 19th and 20th century Christian theology might recognize that some Christians argue the same point about the superiority of their faith.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EThe Brahmo Samaj and the Arya Samaj are both responses to the disrupting effects of westernization. They simplified the complex ways Hinduism encountered western culture and values. The Brahmo Samaj demonstrated a critical openness to Christianity and the values of reason and human equality. The Arya Samaj, like all fundamentalisms, reacted with suspicion towards the agents that bring change and it sought to restore authority to a single text.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EThe effects of the British in India of course had political as well as religious ramifications. The western idea of nation-state sovereignty stimulated a national spirit that would eventually lead to \u003Ca href=\"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2009\/02\/philosophy-of-gandhi-and-hinduism.html\"\u003Ethe movement that established India as an independent nation.\u003C\/a\u003E"},"link":[{"rel":"edit","type":"application/atom+xml","href":"http:\/\/www.blogger.com\/feeds\/2162545800636176770\/posts\/default\/4726462598626240486"},{"rel":"self","type":"application/atom+xml","href":"http:\/\/www.blogger.com\/feeds\/2162545800636176770\/posts\/default\/4726462598626240486"},{"rel":"alternate","type":"text/html","href":"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2009\/02\/british-imperialism-in-india.html","title":"British Imperialism in India"}],"author":[{"name":{"$t":"Pablo"},"uri":{"$t":"http:\/\/www.blogger.com\/profile\/11389808587848128327"},"email":{"$t":"noreply@blogger.com"},"gd$image":{"rel":"http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail","width":"16","height":"16","src":"https:\/\/img1.blogblog.com\/img\/b16-rounded.gif"}}]},{"id":{"$t":"tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2162545800636176770.post-873385124804866596"},"published":{"$t":"2008-12-31T05:57:00.000-08:00"},"updated":{"$t":"2008-12-31T06:02:39.713-08:00"},"category":[{"scheme":"http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#","term":"hindu rituals"},{"scheme":"http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#","term":"hindu society"}],"title":{"type":"text","$t":"Hindu Rituals"},"content":{"type":"html","$t":"When I first introduced the concept of \u003Ca href=\"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2008\/11\/hinduism-and-karma.html\"\u003Ekarma\u003C\/a\u003E I mentioned that its original meaning was ritual action, later it acquired moral connotations. I talked in another article about how rebirth might be improved by following the \u003Ca href=\"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2008\/11\/dharma-of-hinduism.html\"\u003Emoral law\u003C\/a\u003E. Now it is time to explore how positive karma may be produced by meritorious religious activity. Participating in these activities creates the karmic merit that yields favorable future lives.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EThe Daily Rituals\u003C\/h4\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EAlmost all Hindus practice daily rituals of some sort, depending on \u003Ca href=\"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2008\/11\/caste-system.html\"\u003Ecaste\u003C\/a\u003E, family custom and geographical region. A typical pious householder would rise before the sun and utter the name of his personal god, his ishta devata. He touches the earth and then bows to the images of the deities in his room. Almost every Hindu home contains sacred images of the gods, particularly of those who one is most devoted.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EThe guidelines for rituals prescribe a bath. This is widely practiced. Besides serving the purposes of hygiene, the bath helps to remove pollution that one might accumulate during the course of a day. After this, one applies forehead markings using color paste to indicate one’s devotion to a particular god and to a religious community. These markings are important, without them rituals are ineffective.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EFollowing the bath, the householder recites a morning prayer comprised mainly of the repetition of an ancient mantra, called the \u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: bold;\"\u003EGayatri Mantra\u003C\/span\u003E. This prayer is repeated daily by million of Hindus. This is followed by hymns, readings from sacred texts, worship performed by burning incense and prostrating. This form of worship is known as \u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: bold;\"\u003Epuja\u003C\/span\u003E. Varied forms of puja are prescribed by each religious community. The morning rituals are followed by similar but less elaborate rites that happen at noon and at the evening.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EThe Rituals for the Stages of Life\u003C\/h4\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EHindus celebrate and ritualize the moments of \u003Ca href=\"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2008\/12\/role-of-men-in-hinduism.html\"\u003Etransition in the life\u003C\/a\u003E of an individual. These events are more than just occasions for individuals. They are intended for the entire community to recognize the significant changes that individual members undergo. Hindus mark the changes of life with a series of celebrations known as \u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: bold;\"\u003Esamskaras\u003C\/span\u003E. Some Hindu communities observe as many as sixteen different samskaras. The most significant ones for all Hindus are those that concern \u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: bold;\"\u003Ebirth, initiation, marriage and death. \u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EThe rituals of birth include samskaras that are celebrated before and after the child arrives. Some Hindus conduct a “parting of the hair” ritual to ensure a safe and healthy pregnancy. For this rite, the husband parts his wife’s hair and applies red powder to protect her and the child from evil spirits. Ten days after the child is born a naming ceremony is performed. Even the first haircut, when the child is about three, is frequently the occasion for a ritual.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EInitiation usually occurs when a child reaches the teen years. We already discussed the initiation of \u003Ca href=\"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2008\/12\/role-of-men-in-hinduism.html\"\u003Eupper caste boys\u003C\/a\u003E. As you may recall, the initiation marked a boy’s second birth and his entrance into student-hood. Although the orthodox traditions of the Brahmins do not prescribe an initiation for girls, many Hindu communities in fact celebrate a girl’s passage to womanhood. The rite often consists of a period of seclusion, a ritual bath and a feast.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EWedding rituals signify what many Hindus consider the most important rite of passage in life. We already discussed this ceremony in the article about the \u003Ca href=\"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2008\/12\/role-of-women-in-hinduism.html\"\u003Erole of women in Hinduism\u003C\/a\u003E. By way of brief review let me remind you that the wedding rites are always grand and frequently expensive. They are celebrated in various ways throughout India with each region contributing its own distinctiveness to the ritual. The ceremonies are conducted by a priest and involve the giving of a wedding necklace and the circumambulation of the sacred fire.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EThe final samskara in any individual’s life is the funeral. Cremation is by far the most common funeral custom. Only very small children, sannyasins (wandering ascetics) and members of small and atypical sects are buried rather than burned. Ordinarily, the funeral rites begin almost immediately after the person dies. After the body is washed and clothed is taken by a procession to a cremation ground. Funeral processions are a common sight throughout India. The body is surrounded by flowers. There is usually no coffin, so the body is not hidden from view.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EAt the burning grounds, often located near a river, untouchables take charge of the cremations. If it is near sacred rivers, such as the river Ganges, the corpse is immersed and placed on a pyre wood. Such wood is scarce in India. Funerals can be expensive. Many times poor people can’t afford a funeral and just place the corpse in the river. The cremation fire is usually lit by the eldest son, who prays to the fire god Agni to transport the soul to the place of the ancestors. After the cremation, the family members turn and without looking back take a purifying bath and return home. The ashes are later committed to the river."},"link":[{"rel":"edit","type":"application/atom+xml","href":"http:\/\/www.blogger.com\/feeds\/2162545800636176770\/posts\/default\/873385124804866596"},{"rel":"self","type":"application/atom+xml","href":"http:\/\/www.blogger.com\/feeds\/2162545800636176770\/posts\/default\/873385124804866596"},{"rel":"alternate","type":"text/html","href":"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2008\/12\/hindu-rituals.html","title":"Hindu Rituals"}],"author":[{"name":{"$t":"Pablo"},"uri":{"$t":"http:\/\/www.blogger.com\/profile\/11389808587848128327"},"email":{"$t":"noreply@blogger.com"},"gd$image":{"rel":"http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail","width":"16","height":"16","src":"https:\/\/img1.blogblog.com\/img\/b16-rounded.gif"}}]},{"id":{"$t":"tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-2162545800636176770.post-5783218125088573869"},"published":{"$t":"2008-11-30T08:11:00.000-08:00"},"updated":{"$t":"2008-12-27T20:13:12.384-08:00"},"category":[{"scheme":"http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#","term":"caste system"},{"scheme":"http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#","term":"castes"},{"scheme":"http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#","term":"hindu society"},{"scheme":"http://www.blogger.com/atom/ns#","term":"history of hinduism"}],"title":{"type":"text","$t":"The Caste System"},"content":{"type":"html","$t":"The caste system is a social, economic, political and religious phenomenon. And it is extremely complex. Here we will simplify greatly to try to understand it.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EThe Hindu caste system is based on an assumption that lies at odds with the assumption of Western democratic ideals: that all people are created equal. From the \u003Ca href=\"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2008\/11\/how-hinduism-was-started.html\"\u003Eclassical Hindu\u003C\/a\u003E perspective it is apparent that people are born with different intellectual and spiritual qualities and capabilities. These differences dispose different people to different sorts of occupations and responsibilities in society.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EThe innate differences with which people are born derive from how they acted in previous lives. This is the \u003Ca href=\"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2008\/11\/hinduism-and-karma.html\"\u003Elaw of karma\u003C\/a\u003E. How we act now determines who we will become. And who we are now has been determined by how we have been in the past.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EA Hierarchical Structure Founded on Purity\u003C\/h4\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EOf course, caste is more than just a division of labor. It also entails a hierarchy. The hierarchy of caste is not based on wealth. It is founded on purity. Those at the top of the social ladder are regarded as more spiritually pure than those at the bottom. The entire system is thus a gradient of purity.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003ESome in India defend the principles of caste saying that it makes more sense to make the social distinctions based in merit and function rather than on money, as it is done in the West. Like the words \u003Ca href=\"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2008\/11\/what-is-hinduism.html\"\u003EHinduism and India\u003C\/a\u003E, the word caste is not an indigenous Indian word. Caste is actually a Portuguese expression that fits the Indian social system a little imprecisely.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EThe term caste refers to what Hindus call \u003Cspan\u003EVarna\u003C\/span\u003E and \u003Cspan\u003EJati\u003C\/span\u003E. These two terms designate two different but related systems of organizing Indian society. Varna means color and the term jati means birth, or more specifically, birth group.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EIf Westerners are at all familiarized with the caste system, they usually think of what Hindus call Varna. The Varna system is essentially the traditional Hindu division of labor, comprised of the four categories we mentioned in the discussion of \u003Ca href=\"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2008\/11\/aryan-civilization.html\"\u003EAryan civilization\u003C\/a\u003E:\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EBrahmins\u003C\/strong\u003E: the class of priests and intellectuals who comprise about 6% to 7% of the population.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EThe kshatriyas\u003C\/strong\u003E: the warriors and administrators.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EThe vaishyas\u003C\/strong\u003E: who are the merchants, farmers and artisans.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EThe shudras\u003C\/strong\u003E: the peasants or the common folk.\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EThe first three castes are known as the twice born, because as children their members undergo a ritual initiation compared to a second birth. The shudras, however, have no such ritual initiation, so they are known as the once born.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EThe Untouchables\u003C\/h4\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EOutside of the Varna system altogether are those who have no caste. These are the persons known variously as outcastes, untouchables and harijans: the word used by Gandhi meaning “children of god”.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EToday, members of this group prefer to call themselves dalits, meaning “the oppressed ones”. People in this class are the handlers of leather, the body burners and the toilet cleaners. In short, the persons who perform the dirty work in Indian society. Other Hindus regard this kind of work so highly polluting that they cannot remove the impurity with standard procedures of purification.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EThe untouchables both are and are not Hindus. Up until the advocacy of Gandhi, they were forbidden from entering Hindu temples. They lived outside the villages and towns and couldn’t use public facilities like the well. The Indian constitution outlawed untouchability when the nation gained its independence from Great Britain. They did so by making the untouchables a part of the shudra varna.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EDespite this theoretical abolition of untouchability, its practice remains a very real and present part of daily Hindu life.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EThe Jatis or Birth Groups\u003C\/h4\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EIn addition to Varna, the caste system is made of a large number of jatis or “birth groups”. Jatis may be thought of as subcastes, existing within the larger Varna groupings. As its name implies, one subcaste is determined by birth and one does not leave it except under very rare circumstances.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EUnlike the Varnas, which are pan-hindu, jatis are local groupings. Because of this fact the actual number of jatis has not been determined with certainty. However, estimates suggest that there may be over 3000. There are hundreds of jatis in each Varna. Local ranking is not always the same. In other words, in one region of India a particular jati may be considered part of one varna, and in another region maybe it is regarded as part of a different varna.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EJust as the varna system is hierarchical, so too is the jati system. Although there is little or no social mobility for individuals in the caste system, there is some mobility for subcaste as a whole. Members of some jatis might attempt to gain a greater standing for their entire subcaste by imitating the behavior of higher castes.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EIn the past, it has been sometimes possible for social aspirants to buy a higher caste rank. There have even been some lower caste kings who had their genealogies reconstructed to prove that they were of the warrior caste. This, however, are rare exceptions to the rule, for the vast majority has its destiny.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EIn addition to specify occupation, castes also determine many others facets of everyday life. These are based on the dynamics of purity and pollution.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EMarriage\u003C\/h4\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EOne’s caste and subcaste imply marital restrictions. Generally, people are expected to marry within their caste and even within their subcaste.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EMen cannot marry another caste but in special occasions women can. In the matrimonials, the clasified ads that many Hindus use for the purpose of arranging marriages, caste is always featured. Even when couples have what now is called “love marriages”, that is, marriages based on romance rather than on family arrangements, they still overwhelmingly marry within their social groups.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EDiet\u003C\/h4\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003ECaste determines the kinds of food one may eat. The kinds of people for whom one may receive food and the kinds of people with whom one may eat. The high caste Brahmins maintain strict vegetarian diets, whereas eating meat may be accepted at lower caste levels, where ritual purity is of less concern.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EAnimal flesh is considered unclean and those who wish to maintain purity avoid it. In much of South India most restaurants are assumed to be vegetarian, unless they explicitly advertise themselves as non-vegetarian.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Ch4\u003ESociability\u003C\/h4\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003ECaste also determines the type of people with whom one can associate or whom one may touch. This obviously is the origin of the term “untouchability”. Touching someone less clean than oneself is thought to be polluting. This is why it is essential to marry within one’s caste.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003ESome high caste persons would consider even seeing an untouchable as ritually polluting. We must remember that in India seeing is tantamount to touching.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Ch3\u003EThe Functions of Each Caste\u003C\/h3\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003ELower castes cannot perform the duties of upper castes, but if necessary, upper castes members can do lower caste work. It is not uncommon, for instance, to see a Brahmin at a business. Sometimes it is not possible for a Brahmin to find work as a priest.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EThere are limitations to this flexibility, however. As the \u003Ca href=\"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2008\/11\/dharma-of-hinduism.html\"\u003E laws of Manu\u003C\/a\u003E state:\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cspan\u003E\u003Ci\u003E“It is better to discharge one’s own appointed duty incompletely than to perform completely that of another. For he who lives according to the law of another caste is instantly excluded from his own.”\u003C\/i\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EEarly Hindus believed, as do many modern ones, that if everyone performs his or her duty unquestionably a balance could be maintained in the world and humans could live in peace. The \u003Ca href=\"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2008\/11\/dharma-of-hinduism.html\"\u003Elaws of Manu\u003C\/a\u003E explain the basics of this attitude:\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cspan\u003E\u003Ci\u003E“In order to protect this universe, He, the most resplendid one, assigns separate duties and occupations for those who sprang from his mouth, arms, eyes and feet.”\u003C\/i\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003ECaste, then, exists for the good of the world, and to upset it in any way leads to social and eventually cosmological disruption.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EYou may ask how this caste structure is enforced. By family and intracast pressure. In other words, it is not usaully a matter of the upper castes enforcing rules on the lower castes, although that sometimes happens. More frequently, however, enforcement comes from within one’s own group.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EMost castes have caste counsils, in which the interests of the caste are discussed and advanced.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EBrahmins\u003C\/h4\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003ELet’s examine what are the duties and responsabilities of the caste members. Our source will be the Laws of Manu. According to these laws, this is the Dharma for Brahmins:\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cspan\u003E\u003Ci\u003E“Brahmins shall live dully performing the following six acts, which are enumerated in their proper order: teaching, studying, sacrificing for himself, sacrificing for others, making gifts and receiving them.”\u003C\/i\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EAmong these six acts ordained for the Brahmin, three are his means of subsistence: sacrificing for others, teaching and accepting gifts from pure men. Many people grow cynically when they hear that one of the duties of the Brahmins is to receive gifts from other castes. What a difficult job that must be, they think.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EYet, accepting gifts creates the opportunity for others to generate merit by increasing their positive karma, which enables them to gain a more favorable rebirth. In this sense, the giving of gifts to Brahmins is reciprocated. Still, the laws of Manu clearly explain the value of the Brahmins:\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Ci\u003E\u003Cspan\u003E“On account of his preeminence, on account of his superiority of origin, on account of his observance of particular restrictive rules  and on account of his particular sanctification the Brahmin is the lord of our castes. \u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EThe attainments of his previous lives are what make the Brahmin worthy of such honor. For it is by the production of great merit in his earlier life times that the Brahmin has achieved this status in the present life.”\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/i\u003E\u003Cspan\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EKshatriyas\u003C\/h4\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cspan\u003EThe Dharma of the kshatriyas according to the laws of Manu is this:\u003Ci\u003E “To dully protect this whole world.”\u003C\/i\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EThe laws of Manu go on to specify that the kshatriyas must protect the world in two ways. First, they must protect their people from foreign enemies:\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cspan\u003E\u003Ci\u003E“Their duty is to fight thy foes, be they equal in strength, or stronger or weaker. They must not shrink back from battle. Not to turn back in battle, to protect the people, to honor the Brahmins is the best mean for a king to secure happiness. Those kings who seeking to slay each other in battle fight and do not turn back go to heaven. Nonetheless, the kshatriya should, whenever possible, seek peaceful resolution to conflict”.\u003C\/i\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003ESecond, the kshatriya is responsable for maintaining the order of the caste system itself, knowing that a breach of caste causes social chaos and ultimate destruction. According to the laws of Manu:\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cspan\u003E\u003Ci\u003E“The whole world is kept in order by punishment. Through fear of punishment the whole world yields enjoyments.”\u003C\/i\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EVaishyas\u003C\/h4\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EAccording to Manu, this is the dhrama for the Vaishyas:\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cspan\u003E\u003Ci\u003E“After the Vaishya has recieved the sacraments and has taken a wife, it should always be attentive to the business whereby he may subsist, that of attending cattle. A Vaishya should never conceive this wish: I will never keep cattle. A Vaishya must know the respective value of gems, of pearls, of metals, of cloth made of thread, of perfumes and of condiments. He must be acquainted with the manner of sowing seeds and of the good and bad quality of fields. He must know perfectly all measures and weights.”\u003C\/i\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EShudras\u003C\/h4\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EThis is the dharma for the Shudras:\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cspan\u003E\u003Ci\u003E“To serve the Brahmins is the highest duty of a Shudra which leads to beatitude. A Shudra who is pure, who serves  his betters, is gentle in his speech and free from pride and always seek refuge with the Brahmins, attains in his next life a higher cast.”\u003C\/i\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EA Shudra, though emancipated by his master, is not released from servitude, since that is innate in him.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003ESince the laws of Manu do not recognize the “untouchables” as part of the caste system, it makes no mention of their particular dharma.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EConclusion\u003C\/h4\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EThe caste system in India has made for a highly stable society. It hasn’t changed substancially for the last two thousand years. Certainly, there has been friction between and among the castes and subcastes. However, the system itself has remained stable.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EThis fact may be a bit surprising. How is it that a society based on hierarchy and privileges has not been subject to revolutions from the lower classes? To answer this question we must return to the religious foundations of Hindu life. The concepts of \u003Ca href=\"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2008\/11\/what-is-reincarnation.html\"\u003Ereincarnation\u003C\/a\u003E and \u003Ca href=\"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2008\/11\/hinduism-and-karma.html\"\u003Ekarma\u003C\/a\u003E work to support the idea that one’s circumstances in life are the consequence of our own actions. Our place in life is not accidental. All persons are responsible for where they happen to be and where one happens to be is fair and just.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EBy the same token, these concepts function to encourage individuals not to resist the system but to fulfill the dharma of one’s caste, because in doing so, one’s position in the next life is sure to improve.\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003EFurther reading:\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Ca href=\"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2008\/12\/role-of-men-in-hinduism.html\"\u003E\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: bold;\"\u003EThe Role of Men in Hinduism\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/a\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cspan style=\"font-weight: bold;\"\u003E\u003Ca href=\"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2008\/12\/role-of-women-in-hinduism.html\"\u003EThe Role of Women in Hinduism\u003C\/a\u003E\u003Cbr \/\u003E\u003C\/span\u003E\u003C\/li\u003E\u003C\/ul\u003E"},"link":[{"rel":"edit","type":"application/atom+xml","href":"http:\/\/www.blogger.com\/feeds\/2162545800636176770\/posts\/default\/5783218125088573869"},{"rel":"self","type":"application/atom+xml","href":"http:\/\/www.blogger.com\/feeds\/2162545800636176770\/posts\/default\/5783218125088573869"},{"rel":"alternate","type":"text/html","href":"http:\/\/hinduismbeliefs.blogspot.com\/2008\/11\/caste-system.html","title":"The Caste System"}],"author":[{"name":{"$t":"Pablo"},"uri":{"$t":"http:\/\/www.blogger.com\/profile\/11389808587848128327"},"email":{"$t":"noreply@blogger.com"},"gd$image":{"rel":"http://schemas.google.com/g/2005#thumbnail","width":"16","height":"16","src":"https:\/\/img1.blogblog.com\/img\/b16-rounded.gif"}}]}]}});